Essay on Racial Profiling - 11241 Words

\\server05\productn\C\CPP\8-2\CPP204.txt unknown Seq: 1 5-JUN-09 8:30 Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?* Patricia Y. Warren Florida State University Donald Tomaskovic-Devey University Massachusetts, Amherst Research Summary Scholarly research has documented repeatedly that minority citizens are disproportionately stopped, searched, and arrested relative to their baseline populations. In recent years, policymakers have brought increased attention to this issue as law-enforcement agencies across the United States have faced allegations of racial profiling. In the 1990s, the politics generated by accounts of racially biased policing placed heightened†¦show more content†¦Direct correspondence to Patricia Y. Warren at 634 West Call Street, College of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32301 (e-mail: pwarren@fsu.edu). CRIMINOLOGY Public Policy Volume 8 Issue 2 Copyright 2009 American Society of Criminology 343 \\server05\productn\C\CPP\8-2\CPP204.txt 344 unknown Seq: 2 5-JUN-09 8:30 Warren and Tomaskovic-Devey Policy Implications The results of this study suggest several important policy recommendations. First, law-enforcement agencies must monitor the policing practices of their officers because such supervision can influence officer compliance with fair and unbiased policing policies. Next, supervisors need to familiarize themselves with enforcement data to identify potential problem officers and organizational practices. By doing so, police organizations will not only increase officer accountability but also will potentially improve communication with their local communities. Such communication can empower community members to file charges against officers who violate their civil rights. Next, the media and political effects documented in this study suggest that external oversight can be particularly influential on police practices. Therefore, police agencies should consider developing a citizen complaint board, which is an external oversight board that would beShow MoreRelatedRacial Profiling1165 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Introduction What is racial profiling? The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) defines racial profiling as â€Å"the discriminatory practice by law enforcement officials of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on the individual’s race, ethnicity, religion or national origin† (2005). Do not confuse racial profiling with criminal profiling; criminal profiling is usually practiced by police in which they use a group of characteristics that are associated with crime to target individualsRead MoreRacial Profiling1430 Words   |  6 Pagestwenty years the issue of racial profiling has become extremely combative with regards to law enforcement practices. A common misconception begins as some people are unaware of what racial profiling actually is. Racial profiling typically deals with incarceration, miss education, and to certain extent slavery. The topic of slavery is relevant in the conversation of racial profiling because like slavery, African Americans have suffered ju st due their own identity. Profiling is essentially the selectionRead MoreRacial Profiling And Criminal Profiling Essay1538 Words   |  7 Pages Racial Profiling Vs Criminal Profiling Camilo Paez Briarcliffe College Professor Keirnan 11/13/2016 â€Æ' Executive summary Racial Profiling is a big problem is society. Over time you become biased of certain groups which is good and bad. Criminal profiling helps keep the bad guys off the streets. This maybe be also linked with being racist according to the people stopped by police. As a police officer you never win because no one wants to go to jail. It is very hard to â€Æ' Racial ProfilingRead MoreRacial Profiling1056 Words   |  5 Pages There has always been racial profiling in our history. The problem here is that at some point the ones who are oppressed and discriminated sooner o later will claim why they are treated unequally. There are many examples around the world, but one only has to take a look at how the American society has been designed to realize the great difference between individuals. It was even normal and acceptable to see these differences during the creation of this nation because the ones who supposedly hadRead More Racial Profiling is Necessary1040 Words   |  5 Pagesunderstand racial profiling, it must first be correctly defined. Although different authors use different criteria for the term racial profiling, Merriam-Webster’s definition for the word racial is â€Å"of, relating to, or based on a race (Merriam-Webster, 2006; p.855).† The definition the dictionary puts forth for profiling is â€Å"the act of suspecting or targeting a person solely on the basis of observed char acteristics or behavior (Merriam-Webster, 2006; p.830).† Based on these definitions, racial profilingRead MoreRacial Profiling Is A Problem969 Words   |  4 Pages Racial profiling has been an issue in society for as long as America had a criminal justice system. Racial profiling is a problem because it refers discriminatory practice bye-law enforcement officials of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on the individual s race, ethnicity, religion or national origin. In 1868, the fourteenth amendment was ratified which states, No state. Shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, would have made racialRead MoreThe Good and Bad of Racial Profiling1250 Words   |  5 Pages It has been said that racial profiling has been used more than once as a way to detain suspects that arouse suspcion according to NAACP. Racial profiling is the suspicion of people based on race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, or other immutable charateristics rather than evidence based behavior. Eventhough statistics say otherwise racial profiling should not be used as a reasnoable right to detain an individual because it is unlawful, discrinmatory, and ineffective. Even though statisticsRead MoreRacial Profiling And Its Impact On Society1310 Words   |  6 Pageswhich is racial profiling. This issue, where authorities target certain individuals based on their racial characteristics, has never ceased. According to many influential claimsmakers, racial profiling has stained the United States by negatively affecting society and disturbing the certainty of justice. It is unconstitutional and leads to impactful consequences such as deaths, fear, and loss of trust in police officers, demoralization, and dehumanization of stigmatized groups of people. Racial profilingRead MoreRacial Profiling in Different Ways791 Words   |  3 PagesRacial Profiling has been used by law enforcement officials from early 60’s during the civil rights movement. The term â€Å"racial profiling† which was introduced to criticize abusive police practices against people of different race, ethnicity or national origin. One must assess how to understand the practice, and how to keep it distinct from other issues. Racial profiling is defined as â€Å"any police-initiated action that relies on the race, ethnicity, or national origin, rather than the behavior of anRead MorePersuasive Essay On Racial Profiling903 Words   |  4 Pagespolice. Racial profiling refers to the discriminatory practice by law enforcement officials of targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on the individuals race, ethnicity, religion or national origin. This is similar to criminal or offender profiling, the analysis of a persons psychological and behavio ural characteristics, so as to assess whether they are likely to have committed a crime under investigation. Both seem to be similar, but make no mistake that racial profiling is illegal

African American And The Civil War - 876 Words

In 1865, when the civil war ended in America and slavery was abolished, the African American population in the South faced many challenges related to their new found freedom. Following the post-Civil War Reconstruction period, white supremacy resurfaced in the South (AE Television, 2015). Beginning in the early 1900s through 1970 there was a mass exodus of African American s from South to North America. Although some African American s were known to have moved from the South as early as 1850, there were two major waves during the 1900s (AE, 2015; Gates, Jr., 2013). Prior to 1900 and following the slavery abolishment, civil rights issue among African American in the South were significant (Tindall Shi, 2013). Segregation, violence, and even underground forms of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) remained a fear for African American s in the South. In 1892, Homer Plessy was arrested on an East Louisiana Railroad train and charged with violating Louisiana segregation laws in Plessy vs. Fergus on (CRF, 2015). Violence and lack of segregation control resulted in the legal establishment of the Jim Crow Laws which were recognized as separate but equal rights for African American s. Jim Crow was slang or a nickname for a black man during this time (CRF 2015). The 1902 Virginia Constitution, put provisions in place to prevent African Americans from qualifying as voters, these provisions includes screening tests and poll taxes (Crew, 2014). There were a number of conditionsShow MoreRelatedAfrican Americans And The Civil War1076 Words   |  5 Pages Throughout history African Americans have had is bad in the United States. First they went through slavery which lasted about two hundred year and was ended around the Civil War which was in the 1860s-1870s. Next after they went through slavery they went through the law of Jim Crow that started after the Civil War which stated, â€Å"Separate but Equal†, and that was not the case because African Americans were still tre ated as second class citizens. After about ninety years around the 1960s Dr. MartinRead MoreAfrican Americans and the Civil War774 Words   |  4 PagesEssay African Americans and the Civil War Slavery affected many of the political reasons that contributed to causing the Civil War in 1961. Most in the Northern states including President Lincoln were more concerned with preserving the Union rather than fighting for the freedom of all. On the other hand the South fought to preserve what they believed to be absolute state rights. However the overall goals of the war were altered significantly by the willingness of African Americans during war. ThisRead MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War1449 Words   |  6 PagesWhen the Civil War began, they wanted to take part in fighting to free all slaves. At the end of the civil war passed the civil rights act that gave citizenship to people that are born in the united states, years later African American men were given the right to vote. This might give equal rights but African Americans are still being discriminated. Almost century later, African Americans are still being discriminated. They got jobs and their kids go to school, but more notice that it wasn t rightRead MoreThe Civil War On African Americans Essay1421 Words   |  6 PagesThe years preceding the Civil War were monstrous for African Americans located in the South of the country. Northerners and Southerners would argue that their visions of how society is structured is the right way and should be expanded throughout the nation. Southerners claimed that slavery is okay, and it’s a positive labor system. On the contrary, Northerners claim that laborers should be paid by wage, men should have equal opportunities, and slaves should gain freedom. The four most significantRead MoreThe Civil War Of African Americans1010 Words   |  5 Pagescentury. For an African American, the word â€Å"life† evolved from a word that meant absolutely nothing, to a word that stood for an individual’s highest commodity. After the c ivil war, emancipation for slaves transformed from a dream to a reality. Although the civil war finally ended in 1865 after four years of fighting, certain citizens and groups across the nation still remained in a state if disagreement with the freedom granted to African Americans. The years after the civil war revolutionizedRead MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War1309 Words   |  6 PagesIn the summer of 1619, the first Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia not to live as free settlers but as subordinate slaves. They worked strenuously for Whites, who considered themselves superior to Africans, without much benefit. Racism is not just the belief that one race is superior to others, but the act of negatively identifying individuals based on the color of their skin. Attributing race to individual character has proven to have negative implications that are difficult to mend.Read MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War1540 Words   |  7 Pageshistorical backdrop of the United States, African Americans have dependable been victimized. When Africans first came to America, they had no choice but to be slaves. The progressed toward becoming slaves to the rich, covetous, lethargic Americans. African Americans had given no compensation and regularly whipped and beaten. They battled for their opportunity, yet when the Civil War came African Americans had this logic that if they were to join the Civil War they could liberate all slaves. HoweverRead MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War859 Words   |  4 Pagesslavery, predominately in the American South, African-Americans were finally set free from bondage. The fourteenth and fifteenth amendments quickly followed, granting citizenship to â€Å"all persons born or naturalized in the United States† and granting African American men the right to vote, respectively. Naturally, Americans denoted these momentous legislative feats, collectively packaged as the Reconstruction Amendments, as a means o f celebration for African-Americans. However, in order to rectifyRead MoreAfrican Americans in the Civil War1971 Words   |  8 PagesAnderson HIST 3060 February 25, 13 African Americans and the Civil War The role African Americans played in the outcome, and the road to the outcome of the Civil War was immense. The fact that the south had slaves and the north did not played an enormous role in the issues. The north wanted to abolish slavery, and the south did not and after the war started this became one of the main reasons for the Civil War. Since most African Americans could not read or write, this made them an easyRead MoreAfrican Americans And The Civil War971 Words   |  4 PagesAfter the civil war African Americans hoped that the world they lived in would be an equal one; little did they know they had more struggles to conquer. Three major amendments were passed to provide African Americans with equality; the 13th amendment officially and finally put an end to slavery and any future involuntary servitude, the 14th amendment states that colored men and women were given citizenship, and the 15th amendment gave black men the right to vote. Although these amendments were passed

Curiosity Killed the Cat free essay sample

The original form of the proverb, now little used, was Care killed the cat. In this instance, care was defined as worry or sorrow. An easier definiton of the phrase curiosity killed the cat would be that being curious can sometimes lead to trouble. |Well everyone knows that cats are very curious creatures and poke their nose everywhere which can cause trouble. | | |The saying or phrase was first attested in the USA in 1909. It is one of the fairly new sayings and it first appearance in writing was in a | |1921-1922 play by Euene ONeill. A variation is Curiosity killed the cat: satisfaction brought him back. | | | |Elsewhere , it is stated that the phrase curiosity killed the cat is actually a spin-off of an old saying that really had nothing at all | |to do with the cats natural sleuthing abilities! In the 16th century, there was a saying, care kills a cat. | | | |This statement meant that cats seemed to be very cautious, careful and worrisome creatures, and too much anxiety can be bad for ones | |health, even to the point of sending one to an early grave. A cat, then, could be killed by excessive care as indeed could a human. Over | |the years, the meaning of the word care changed, and the word curiosity was substituted in the phrase, intending to explain that this | |was a trait that got both people and cats into trouble sometimes! 1 Origin The earliest printed reference to the original proverb is attributed to the British playwright Ben Jonson in his 1598 play, Every Man in His Humour, which was performed first by William Shakespeare. Helter skelter, hang sorrow, care will kill a cat, up-tails all, and a pox on the hangman. Shakespeare used a similar quote in his circa 1599 play, Much Ado About Nothing: |â€Å" |What, courage man! what though care killed a cat, thou hast mettle enough in thee to kill care. |† | The proverb r emained the same until at least 1898. Ebenezer Cobham Brewer included this definition in his Dictionary of Phrase and Fable: |â€Å" |Care killed the Cat. |† | | |It is said that a cat has nine lives, yet care would wear them all out. | | 2 Transformation The origin of the modern variation is unknown. The earliest known printed reference to the actual phrase Curiosity killed the cat is in James Allan Mairs 1873 compendium A handbook of proverbs: English, Scottish, Irish, American, Shakesperean, and scriptural; and family mottoes, where it is listed as an Irish proverb on page 34. In the 1902 edition of Proverbs: Maxims and Phrases, by John Hendricks Bechtel, the phrase Curiosity killed the cat is the lone entry under the topic Curiosity on page 100. O. Henrys 1909 short story Schools and Schools includes a mention that suggests knowledge of the proverb had become widespread by that time: |â€Å" |Curiosity can do more things than kill a cat; and if emotions, well recognized as feminine, are inimical to feline life, then |† | | |jealousy would soon leave the whole world catless. | | The actual phrase appeared as the headline to a story in The Washington Post on 4 March 1916 (page 6): â€Å" |CURIOSITY KILLED THE CAT. |† | | | | | | |Four Departments of New York City Government Summoned to Rescue Feline. | | | | | | | |From the New York World. | | | | | | | |Curiosity, as you may recall— | | | | | | | |On the fifth floor of the apartment house at 203 West 130th street lives Miss Mable Godfrey. When she came to the house about seven | | | |months ago she brought Blackie, a cat of several years experience of life. | | | | | | | |The cat seldom left the apartment. He was a hearth cat, not a fence cat, and did not dearly love to sing. In other respects he was | | | |normal and hence curious. | | | | | | |Last Tuesday afternoon when Miss Godfrey was out Blackie skipped into the grate fireplace in a rear room. He had done this many times | | | |before. But he had not climbed up the flue to the chimney. This he did Tuesday. Blackie there remained, perched on the top of the | | | |screen separating the apartment flue from the main chimney, crying for assistance. Miss Godfrey, returning, tried to induce her pet to | | | |come down. If you are experienced in felinity, you know that Blackie didnt come down. | | | | | | | |On Wednesday the cat, curiosity unsatisfied, tried to climb higher—and fell to the first floor. His cries could still be heard by Miss | | | |Godfrey; who, to effect Blackies rescue, communicated with the following departments: | | | |1. Police department. | | | |2. Fire department. | | | |3. Health department. | | | |4. Building department. | | | |5. Washington Heights court. | | | | | | | |Among them they lowered a rope to Blackie. But it availed neither the cat nor them anything. | | | |Thursday morning, just before noon, a plumber opened the rear wall back of the chimney. Blackie was taken out. His fall had injured his| | | |back. Ten minutes later Blackie died. | | Despite these earlier appearances, the proverb has been wrongly attributed to Eugene ONeill, who included the variation, Curiosity killed a cat! in his play Diffrent from 1920: â€Å" |BENNY—(with a wink) Curiosity killed a cat! Ask me no questions and Ill tell you no lies. |† | The author Stephen King has used an extended variation of this idiom in several of his novellas: Curiosity killed the cat, satisfaction brought him back. Curiosity killed the cat more like this other phrases about: Animals 1 Meaning Inquisitiveness can lead one into dangerous situations. 2 Origin Everyone knows that, despite its supposed nine lives, curiosity killed the cat. Well, not quite. The killed the cat proverb originated as care killed the cat. By care the coiner of the expression meant worry/sorrow rather than our more usual contemporary look after/provide for meaning. That form of the expression is first recorded in the English playwright Ben Jonsons play Every Man in His Humour, 1598: Helter skelter, hang sorrow, carell kill a Cat, up-tails all, and a Louse for the Hangman. The play was one of the Tudor humours comedies, in which each major character is assigned a particular humour or trait. The play is thought to have been performed in 1598 by The Lord Chamberlains Men, a troupe of actors including William Shakespeare and William Kempe. Shakespeare was no slouch when it came to appropriating a memorable line and it crops up the following year in Much Ado About Nothing: What, courage man! what though care killed a cat, thou hast mettle enough in thee to kill care. The proverbial expression curiosity killed the cat, which is usually used when attempting to stop someone asking unwanted questions, is much more recent. The earlier form was still in use in 1898, when it was defined in Brewers Dictionary of Phrase and Fable: Care killed the Cat. It is said that a cat has nine lives, but care would wear them all out. Curiosity hasnt received a good press over the centuries. Saint Augustine wrote in Confessions, AD 397, that, in the eons before creating heaven and earth, God fashioned hell for the inquisitive. John Clarke, in Paroemiologia, 1639 suggested that He that pryeth into every cloud may be struck with a thunderbolt. In Don Juan, Lord Byron called curiosity that low vice. That bad opinion, and the fact that cats are notoriously inquisitive, lead to the source of their demise being changed from care to curiosity. The earliest version that I have found of the precise current form of the proverb in print is from The Galveston Daily News, 1898: It is said that once curiosity killed a Thomas cat. [Thomas cat is a jokey form of tom cat, i. e. a male cat. ] The frequent rejoinder to curiosity killed the cat is satisfaction brought it back. Ive not been able to trace the source of this odd reply. The first citation of it that Ive found in print is from an Iowan college magazine.

Java Technologies Essay Sample free essay sample

Q. 1: a ) What is Object Oriented Paradigm? Explain advantages of Object Oriented Programming. 5 MarkssAns Object Oriented paradigm: The Object Oriented paradigm is centered on the construct of the object. Everything is focused on objects. In this linguistic communication. plan consists of two things: foremost. a set of objects and back the manner they interact with each other. Calculation in this paradigm is viewed as the simulation of existent universe entities. The popular scheduling linguistic communications in this paradigm are C++ . Simula. Smalltalk and Java Object Oriented scheduling: The universe is Object Oriented. and Object Oriented scheduling expresses plans in the ways that model how people perceive the universe. Figure 2 shows different existent universe objects around us which we frequently use for executing different maps. This shows that job work outing utilizing the objects oriented attack is really near to our existent life job work outing techniques. The basic difference in Object Oriented scheduling ( OOP ) is that the plan is organized around the informations being operated upon instead than the operations performed. We will write a custom essay sample on Java Technologies Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The basic thought behind OOP is to unite both. informations and its maps that operate on the information into a individual unit called object. Object Oriented methods are favored because many experts agree that Object Oriented techniques are more disciplined than conventional structured techniques. ( Martin and Odell 1992 ) B ) What is polymorphism? Explain the advantages of polymorphismwith an illustration. Solution: Polymorphism is the capableness of a method to make different things based on the object through which it is invoked or object it is moving upon. For illustration method find _area will work decidedly for Circle object and Triangle object In Java. the type of existent object ever determines method calls ; object mention type doesn’t play any function in it. You have already used two types of polymorphism ( overloading and overruling ) in the old unit and in the current unit of this block. Now we will look at the 3rd: dynamic method binding. Java uses Dynamic Method Dispatch mechanism to make up ones mind at tally clip which overridden map will be invoked. Dynamic Method Dispatch mechanism is of import because it is used to implement runtime polymorphism in Java. Java uses the rule: â€Å"a ace category object can mention to a subclass object† to decide calls to overrule metho ds at tally clip. If a superclass has method that is overridden by its subclasses. so the different versions of the overridden methods are invoked or executed with the aid of a superclass mention variable. Assume that three subclasses ( Cricket_Player Hockey_Player and Football_Player ) that derive from Player abstract category are defined with each subclass holding its ain Play ( ) method. abstract category Player // category is abstract {private String name ;public Player ( String nm ){name=nm ;}public String getName ( ) // regular method{return ( name ) ;}public abstract nothingness Play ( ) ;// abstract method: no execution}category Cricket_Player extends Player{Cricket_Player ( String volt-ampere ){}public nothingness Play ( ){System. out. println ( â€Å"Play Cricket: †+getName ( ) ) ;}}category Hockey_Player extends Player{Hockey_Player ( String volt-ampere ){}public nothingness Play ( ){System. out. println ( â€Å"Play Field hockey: †+getName ( ) ) ;}}category Football_Player extends Player{Football_Player ( String volt-ampere ){}public nothingness Play ( ){System. out. println ( â€Å"Play Football: †+getName ( ) ) ;}}public category PolyDemo{public inactive nothingness chief ( Stringing [ ] args ){Player ref ; // put up volt-ampere for an PlayerlCricket_Player aCplayer = new Cricket_Player ( â€Å"Sachin† ) ; // makes specific objects Hockey_Player aHplayer = new Hockey_Player ( â€Å"Dhanaraj† ) ;Football_Player aFplayer = new Football_Player ( â€Å"Bhutia† ) ;// now cite each as an Animalref = aCplayer ;ref. Play ( ) ;ref = aHplayer ;ref. Play ( ) ;ref = aFplayer ;ref. Play ( ) ;}}End product: Play Cricket: SachinPlay Hockey: DhanarajPlay Football: BhutiaQuestion 2: a ) What is platform independency? Explain why Java is unafraid andplatform independent. ( 3 Marks )B ) Write a plan in Java to bring forth Fibonnaci Series. ( 3 Marks ) c ) Explain the advantage of of Unicode. ( 2 Marks )vitamin D ) Explain the significance of PATH and CLASS PATH. ( 2 Marks ) Solution ( a ) : PlatformIndependent Java is Platform independent. The significance of platform here may be confounding for you but really this word is ill defined. In the computing machine industry it typically means some combination of hardware and system package but here you can understand it as your operating system. Java is compiled to an intermediate signifier called Java byte-code or merely byte codification. A Java plan neer truly executes instantly after digest on the host machine. Rather. this particular plan called the Java translator or Java VirtualMachine reads the byte codification. translates it into the corresponding host machine instructions and so executes the machine direction. A Java programcan tally on any computing machine systemfor which a JVM ( Java Virtual Machine ) and some library modus operandis have been installed. The 2nd of import portion which makes Java portable is the riddance of hardware architecture dependent concepts. For illustration. Integers are ever four bytes long and floating-point variables followthe IEEE 754. You don’t necessitate to worry that the reading of your whole number is traveling to alter if you move from one hardware to another hardware like Pentiumto a PowerPC. We can develop the Java plan on any computing machine system and the executing of that plan is possible on any other computing machine system loaded with JVM. For illustration. we can compose and roll up the Java plan on Windows 98 and put to death the compiled plan on JVM of the Macintosh operating system. Solution ( B ) : SolutionInput – 8Output – 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 */category Fibonacci {public inactive nothingness chief ( Stringing a rgs [ ] ) {int num = Integer. parseInt ( args [ 0 ] ) ; //taking no. as bid line statement.System. out. println ( â€Å"*****Fibonacci Series*****† ) ;int f1. f2=0. f3=1 ;for ( int i=1 ; i lt ; =num ; i++ ) {System. out. print ( † â€Å"+f3+† â€Å" ) ;f1 = f2 ;f2 = f3 ;f3 = f1 + f2 ;}}Solution ( degree Celsius ) : Unicode is a 16-bit codification holding a big scope in comparing to old ASCII codification. which is merely 7 spots or 8 spots in size. Unicode can stand for all the characters of all human linguistic communications. Since Java is developed for planing Internet applications. and world-wide people can compose plans in Java. transmutation of one linguistic communication to another is simple and efficient. Use of Unicode besides supports platformindependence in Java. Solution ( vitamin D ) : Way variableIn JDK the PATH variable contains directories where binary files ( e. g. EXE files in Windows ) will be looked for. We set the PATH variables like this i. e path C: Javajdk1. 6. 0_03in ( I ) on bid prompt Degree centigrades: gt ; set path= % way ; C: Javajdk1. 6. 0_03in %When you open a bid prompt and type â€Å"javac† . you’re supposed to hold the â€Å"bin† directory of your sdk into the PATH. otherwise you’ll acquire an ill-famed â€Å"Command non found† mistake message CLASSPATH In JDK the CLASSPATH contains directories ( or JAR files ) . from where your Java compiler/runtime will look for. category files ( and some others ) . For illustration. â€Å"java Hello. class† will non work unless you set the directory ( or JAR file ) Hello. category is in. into your CLASSPATH. i. e. classpath C: Javajdk1. 6. 0_03lib For puting CLASSPATH utilizing bid promptJava category way can be set utilizing either the -classpath option when naming an SDK tool ( the preferred method ) or by puting the CLASSPATH environment variable. The -classpath option is preferred because you can put it separately for each application without impacting other applications and without other applications modifying its value. ( two ) on bid prompt Degree centigrades: gt ; set classpath= % classpath ; C: Javajdk1. 6. 0_03lib %Question 3: a ) What is an exclusion? Create an exclusion subclass named MyException to manage user generate exclusions in Java. ( 5 Marks ) B ) What is abstract category? What are advantages of utilizing abstract category? Write a plan in Java to explicate abstract category and multilevel heritage. ( 5 Marks )Solution ( a ) : Java utilizations exclusions as a manner of signaling serious jobs when you execute a plan. The criterion categories use them extensively. Since they arise in your Java plans when things go incorrect. and if something can travel incorrect in your codification. Oklahoman or later it will. they are a really basic consideration when you are planing and composing your plans. An exclusion normally signals an mistake and is so called because mistakes in your Java plans are bound to be the exclusion instead than the rule—by definition! An exclusion doesn’t ever indicate an mistake though—it can besides signal some peculiarly unusual event in your plan that deserves particular attending. An exclusion in Java is an object that’s created when an unnatural state of affairs arises in your plan. This exclusion object has Fieldss that shop information about the nature of the job. The exclusion is said to be thrown—that is. the object placing the exceeding circumstance is tossed as an statement to a specific piece of plan codification that has been written specifically to cover with that sort of job. The codification having the exclusion object as a parametric quantity is said to catch it. An illustration of how to specify an exclusion category: public category DreadfulProblemException extends Exception{// Builderspublic DreadfulProblemException ( ) { } // Default builderpublic DreadfulProblemException ( String s ){super ( s ) ; // Name the base category builder}}Solution ( B ) : An abstract category is a category in which one or more methods are declared. but non defined. The organic structures of these methods are omitted. because. as in the instance of the method sound ( ) in the Animal category. implementing the methods does non do sense. Since they have no definition and can non be executed. they are called abstract methods. The declaration for an abstract method ends with a semicolon and you specify the method with the keyword abstract to place it as such. To declare that a category is abstract you merely utilize the keyword abstract in forepart of the category keyword in the first line of the category definition. A plan in Java to explicate abstract category and multilevel heritage abstract category Player // category is abstract{private String name ;public Player ( String nm ){name=nm ;}public String getName ( ) // regular method{return ( name ) ;}public abstract nothingness Play ( ) ;// abstract method: no execution}category Cricket_Player extends Player{Cricket_Player ( String volt-ampere ){ }public nothingness Play ( ){System. out. println ( â€Å"Play Cricket: †+getName ( ) ) ;}}category Hockey_Player extends Player{Hockey_Player ( String volt-ampere ){}public nothingness Play ( ){System. out. println ( â€Å"Play Field hockey: †+getName ( ) ) ;}}category Football_Player extends Player{Football_Player ( String volt-ampere ){}public nothingness Play ( ){System. out. println ( â€Å"Play Football: †+getName ( ) ) ;}}public category PolyDemo{public inactive nothingness chief ( Stringing [ ] args ){Player ref ; // put up volt-ampere for an PlayerlCricket_Player aCplayer = new Cricket_Player ( â€Å"Sachin† ) ; // makes specific objects Hockey_Player aHplayer = new Hockey_Player ( â€Å"Dhanaraj† ) ;Football_Player aFplayer = new Football_Player ( â€Å"Bhutia† ) ;// now cite each as an Animalref = aCplayer ;ref. Play ( ) ;ref = aHplayer ;ref. Play ( ) ;ref = aFplayer ;ref. Play ( ) ;}}End product:Play Cricket: SachinPlay Hockey: DhanarajPlay Football: BhutiaQuestion 4: Distinguish the followers and support with illustration: ( 10 Marks ) Final and inactive memberInheritance and CollectionAbstract category and InterfaceStringing and String BufferSolution: ( I ) Final and staticmemberSolution1. Inactive variables ( besides called category variables ) merely exist in the category they are defined in. They are non instantiated when an case of the category is created. In other words. the values of these variables are non a portion of the province of any object. When the category is loaded. inactive variables are initialized to their default values if no expressed low-level formatting look is specified Final variable: values of concluding variables can non be changed. 2. Inactive methods are besides known as category methods. A inactive method in a category can straight entree other inactive members in the category. It can non entree case ( i. e. . non-static ) members of the category. as there is no impression of an object associated with a inactive method. However. note that a inactive method in a category can ever utilize a mention of the class’s type to entree its members. regardless of whether these members are inactive or non. 3. Concluding methods: can non be overriden.FinalMemberinactive concluding variables are non the same with concluding ( non-static ) variables! Final ( non-static ) variables can differ from object to object! ! ! But that’s merely if the low-level formatting is made within the builder! ( If it is non initialized from the builder so it is merely a waste of memory as it creates concluding variables for every object that is created that can non be altered. ) ( two ) Inheritance and Collection There are two schools of idea on how to outdo extend. enhance. and recycle codification in an objectoriented system:1. Inheritance: widen the functionality of a category by making a subclass. Override superclass members in the subclasses to supply new functionality. Make methods abstract/virtual to coerce subclasses to â€Å"fill-in-the-blanks† when the superclass wants a peculiar interface but is agnostic about its execution. 2. Collection: make new functionality by taking other categories and uniting them into a new category. Attach an common interface to this new category for interoperability with other codification.It’s non a affair of which is the best. but of when to utilize what. ( three ) Abstract category and InterfaceAn interface is an empty shell. there are merely the signatures ( name / params / return type ) of the methods. The methods do non incorporate anything. The interface can’t do anything. It’s merely a form Implementing an interface consume really small CPU. because it’s non a category. merely a clump of names. and therefor there is no expensive search to make. It’s great when it matters such as in embedded devices. Abstract categoriesAbstract categories. unlike interfaces. are categories. There are more expensive to utilize because there is a search to make when you inherit fromthem.Abstract categories look a batch like interfaces. but they have something more: you can specify a behaviour for them. It’s more about a cat stating â€Å"these categories should look like that. and they got that in common. so fill in the spaces! † . ( four ) String and String BufferA String is changeless. i. e. when it’s created. it can neer alter. A StringBuffer ( or its non-synchronized cousin StringBuilder ) is used when you need to build a twine piece by piece without the public presentation operating expense of building tonss of small Strings along the manner. Question 5: a ) What are the categories in Java available for file handling? Write a plan in Java to add on content at the terminal of analready bing file. ( 5 Marks )B ) Explain the difference between checked and unbridledexclusions with illustration.Solution a ) Solution:Java input and end product is based on the usage of watercourses. or sequences of bytes that travel from a beginning to a finish over a communicating way. If a plan is composing to a watercourse. you can see it as stream’ s beginning. If it is reading froma watercourse. it is the stream’ s finish. The communicating way is dependent on the type of I/O being performed. It can dwell of memory-to-memory transportations. a file system. a web. and other signifiers of I/O. File managing in Java is available through watercourses and watercourse categories The Java theoretical account for I/O is wholly based on watercourses. There are two types of watercourses: byte watercourses and character watercourses.†¢ Byt vitamin E str eams carry whole numbers with values that range from 0 to 255. A diversified information can be expressed in byte format. including numerical informations. feasible plans. and byte codifications – the category file that runs a Java plan. †¢ Char acter Str eams are specialised type of byte watercourses that can manage merely textual informations. Most of the functionality available for byte watercourse is besides provided for character watercourses. The methods for character watercourses by and large accept parametric quantities of informations type char. while byte watercourses work with byte informations types. The names of the methods in both sets of categories are about indistinguishable except for the postfix. that is. character-stream categories end with the suffix Reader or Writer and byte-s tream categories end with the postfix InputStream and OutputStream. For illustration. to read files utilizing character watercourses use the Java. Io. FileReader category. and for reading it utilizing byte watercourses use Java. Io. FileInputStream A Programto Copy an already bing File to new Fileimport Java. Io. * ;public category jCOPY {public inactive nothingness chief ( Stringing args [ ] ) {seek {jCOPY J = new jCOPY ( ) ;j. CopyFile ( new File ( args [ 0 ] ) . new File ( args [ 1 ] ) ) ;}gimmick ( Exception e ) {e. printStackTrace ( ) ;}}public nothingness CopyFile ( File in. File out ) throwsException { FileInputStream fis = newFileInputStream ( in ) ; FileOutputStream fos = newFileOutputStream ( out ) ;byte [ ] buf = new byte [ 1024 ] ;int I = 0 ;while ( ( i=fis. read ( buf ) ) ! =-1 ) { field-grade officer. write ( buf. 0. I ) ;}fis. near ( ) ;field-grade officer. near ( ) ;}}two ) Solution:As stated by their name. unbridled exclusions are non checked at compile-time which means that the compiler doesn’t require methods to catch or to stipulate ( with a throws ) them. Classs belonging to this class are detailed in the subdivision 11. 2 Compile-Time Checking of Exceptions of the JLS: The unbridled exclusions categories are the category RuntimeException and its subclasses. and the category Error and its subclasses. All other exclusion categories are checked exclusion categories. The Java API defines a figure of exclusion categories. both checkered and unbridled. Extra exclusion categories. both checkered and unbridled. may be declared by coders. See  §11. 5 for a description of the exclusion category hierarchy and some of the exceptionclasses defined by the Java API and Java practical machine Question 6: a ) What is multithreading? Explain the two ways of making togss in Java plans. Besides explain difference betweennotify ( ) and notify All ( ) methods. ( 5 Marks )B ) What is demand of Layout Manager? Explain different layouts available in Java. ( 5 Marks )Solution a ) :Multithreaded plans support more than one coincident yarn of executing. This means they are able to at the same time put to death multiple sequences of instructions. Each direction sequence has its ain alone flow of control that is independent of all others. These independently executed direction sequences are known as togss. Your Personal computer has merely a individual CPU ; you mi ght inquire how it can put to death more than one yarn at the same clip? In individual processor systems. merely a individual yarn of executing occurs at a given blink of an eye. But multiple togss in a programincrease the use of CPU. The CPU rapidly switches back and Forth between several togss to make an semblance that the togss are put to deathing at the same clip. You know that single-processor systems support logical concurrence merely. Physical concurrence is non supported by it. Logical concurrence is the characteristic exhibited when multiple togss execute with separate. independent flow of control. On the other manus on a multiprocessor system. several togss can put to death at the same clip. and physical concurrence is achieved. Making Threads in JavaThe multithreading system in Java is built upon the Thr ead Class. its methods and its comrade interface. Runnable. To make a new yarn. your plan will either widen Thread Class or implement the Runnable interface. The Thread Class defines several methods that help in pull offing togss. For illustration. if you have to make your ain yarn so you have to make one of the following 1 ) classMyThread extends Thread{MyThread ( statements ) // builder{} //initializationpublic nothingness tally ( ){// performoperations}}Write the undermentioned codification to make a yarn and get down it running: MyThread P = newMyThread ( statements ) ;p. start ( ) ;2 )classMyThread implements Runnable{MyThread ( statements ){//initialization}public nothingness tally ( ){// performoperation}} notify ( ) : this method should be called merely when the current yarn has already acquired the lock on the object. If the delay set of the object is non-empty so a yarn from the set is randomly chosen. removed and is re-enabled for thread programming. Of class. the yarn will non be able to continue unless the current yarn releases the object’s lock. notifyAll ( ) : it’s same as the notify ( ) method. The lone difference is that in this instance all the togss from the non-empty delay set of the object areremoved and are re-enabled for thread programming in position of merely one yarn from the delay set being picked randomly. removed. and re-enabled for thread programming as is the instance in notify ( ) method. B ) A LayoutManager rearranges the constituents in the container based on their size relation to the size of the container.See the window that merely popped up. It has got five buttons of changing sizes. Resize the window and watch how the buttons move. In peculiar attempt doing it merely broad plenty so that all the buttons fit on one line. Then seek doing it narrow and tall so that there is merely one button on line. See if you can pull off to cover up some of the buttons. Then uncover them. Note that whatever you try to make. the order of the buttons is maintained in a logical manner. When you add a constituent to an applet or a container. the container uses its layout director to make up ones mind where to set the constituent. Different LayoutManager classes use different regulations to put constituents. Java. awt. LayoutManager is an interface. Five categories in the Java packages implement it: †¢ FlowLayout †¢ BorderLayout †¢ CardLayout †¢GridLayout†¢ GridBagLayout†¢plus javax. swing. BoxL ayoutQuestion 7: a ) What is an Applet? Write an applet that prints â€Å"Lear Java it is useful† at the current pointer place whenever the mouse left button is clicked. ( 5 Marks )B ) See a category that shops a Bank history holder’s name. history figure. ATM card figure. history balance andATM PIN. Write a plan to hive away the informations onto a disc file. except for the history balance and ATM PIN. Use serialisation and transient variables. ( 5 Marks ) Solution a ) :Applet is a Java plan that runs in the Appletviewer ( a trial public-service corporation for Applets that is included with the J2SDK ) or a World Wide Web browser such as Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Communicator. The Applet category is packed in the Java. Applet bundle which has several interfaces. These interfaces enable the creative activity of Applets. interaction of Applets with the browser. and playing audio cartridge holders in Applets. In Java 2. category Javax. swing. JApplet is used to specify an Applet that uses the Swing GUI constituents. // An Applet plan holding two text boxes and one button. Read your name in one text box // and when button is pressed so your name is transferred into text box two import Java. awt. * ;import Java. applet. * ;import Java. awt. event. * ;public category Q6a extends Applet implements ActionListener {TextField text1. end product ;Label label1. label2 ;Button button ;public nothingness init ( ) {setLayout ( void ) ;label1 = new Label ( â€Å"Enter Name: â€Å" ) ;label1. setBounds ( 20. 20. 100. 20 ) ;attention deficit disorder ( label1 ) ;text1 = newTextField ( 5 ) ;text1. setBounds ( 150. 20. 100. 20 ) ;attention deficit disorder ( text1 ) ;label2label2 = new Label ( â€Å"You Entered: â€Å" ) ;label2. setBounds ( 20. 80. 130. 20 ) ;attention deficit disorder ( label2 ) ;end product = new TextField ( 5 ) ;end product. setBounds ( 150. 80. 100. 20 ) ;attention deficit disorder ( end product ) ;button = new Button ( â€Å"Submit† ) ;button. setBounds ( 150. 110. 100. 20 ) ;at tention deficit disorder ( button ) ;button. addActionListener ( this ) ;}public nothingness actionPerformed ( ActionEvent ae ) {Stringing src=text1. getText ( ) ;end product. setText ( src ) ;} lt ; HTML gt ; lt ; BODY gt ; lt ; APPLET ALIGN=†CENTER† CODE=†Q6a. class† width = â€Å"700† height = â€Å"400† gt ; lt ; /APPLET gt ; lt ; /BODY gt ; lt ; /HTML gt ;Question 8: a ) Write a Java plan to put up JDBC and put to death the undermentioned SQL statement on a database table employee-t with the Fieldss emp-id. emp name. emp-department. empbasicâ€Å"SELECT * FROM employee-t where emp-basic lt ; 10000. ( 7 Marks ) B ) What is Java Bean? What are its advantages? ( 3 Marks )Solution:Java Database Connectivity ( JDBC ) is a category library which provides a standard manner for set uping and keeping a Java program’ s connexion to a database.Java provides JDBC to link to databases and work with it. Using standard library modus opera ndis. you can open a connexion to the database. Basically JDBC allows the integrating of SQL calls into a general scheduling environment by supplying library modus operandis. which interface with the database. In peculiar. Java’ s JDBC has a rich aggregation of modus operandis which makes such an interface highly simple and intuitive. Class. forName ( â€Å"sun. jdbc. odbc. JdbcOdbcDriver† )Connection con = DriverManager. getConnection ( url. username. watchword ) ; Statement stmt = con. createStatement ( ) ;ResultSet R = stmt. executeQuery ( â€Å"SELECT * FROM employee-t where emp-basic lt ; 10000† ) ; while ( R. following ( ) ){ename = R. getString ( â€Å"emp_name† ) ;eaddress = R. getString ( â€Å"emp_address† ) ;esal = R. getFloat ( â€Å"emp_salary† ) ;System. out. println ( ename + † reference is† + eaddress + † draws salary † + esal + â€Å"in dollars† ) ; } B ) A JavaBean on its ain is non awfully interesting. it’s merely a Java category that conforms to some criterions that you listed above. However. conformity with this criterion is one of the pillars on which the Java EE model is built and it comes up in rather a few topographic points. I suspect that when you hear about all of the great things that JavaBeans can make. what’s being referred to in Enterprise JavaBeans ( EJBs ) .

Good-Bye free essay sample

â€Å"Come now,† her text read. That was all she needed to say. Within seconds, I was in my moms car. As I drove, I concentrated on keeping my eyes dry, trying not to think about what I was about to do. My muscles were tense, my teeth were clenched, and the closer I got to her house, the faster the blood pumped through my body. Confusion and terror took over my thoughts, making my attention to the road unreliable. I had never had to use so much willpower to focus on my driving. Once her house finally appeared, I ripped the keys from the ignition. As I ran to her front door, I wondered if I should be sprinting toward this daunting event, but my trembling hands were already turning the doorknob. â€Å"Hes dying,† she told me a couple of weeks before. I dont remember hearing anything after that. We will write a custom essay sample on Good-Bye or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Maybe it was because her sobs made her words inaudible, or maybe I had stopped listening, but either way, I had not believed her. Being best friends with a straightforward girl whose father was battling cancer gave me many speechless moments. This was one of them. I held the phone to my ear as I listened to her cry painfully. Finally, I managed to whisper, â€Å"No †¦Ã¢â‚¬  I wanted to say, â€Å"Thats not true,† or â€Å"Itll all get better soon,† but how did I know that? Each time I promised her that he would get better, my words were contradicted by his doctors. The hospital visits were ending with more depressing news, but I still had not believed her. I wasnt willing to accept that things like this happened to people I knew. Now here I was, standing in her laundry room. She hugged me and whispered, â€Å"Be strong.† Then she pointed to her parents bedroom. Entering the room, my emotions escaped from me as if I had taken too big a breath and let it loose. Insuppressible sobs shook my body as I reached for his hand. But this wasnt the man I knew – the coach who taught me to play soccer in elementary school, the silly guy who sang along to â€Å"Crazy Frog† during our middle school obsession, or even the man who became my second father during a trip to Australia just six months earlier. I was holding the hand of cancer. Pimples peppered his yellowed face, and his skin was loose from the weight he had lost. How do you say good-bye to someone who knows hes dying? I didnt want my last moments with him to be heavy-hearted. Fighting my irregular breathing, I began to list all the happy times we had shared. I thanked him for the vacations I went on, and for the compassionate, strong, beautiful daughter he had raised. When I finished, I said, â€Å"I will miss you. I love you.† I was no longer shaking as I gave his hand a gentle squeeze. That day shaped the way I live. I realized that no one is invincible. It was a terrifying awakening, and initially I lived in a world of â€Å"what ifs† – making fear a routine feeling. In time, I came to a different conclusion: I need to appreciate life; I cannot allow myself to take it for granted, because I dont know when my life and the lives around me will come to an end. My continued decision to be chemical-free comes from my realization that I am lucky to have a body that sustains me. I have learned to forgive easily. Weve all heard the phrase, â€Å"Our time is precious; we shouldnt waste it,† but it wasnt until I held deaths hand that I learned to live that way.

The eNotes Blog eNotes.com Has a NewLook!

Has a NewLook! Weve redesigned for a sleeker, more modern look that will also provide a better experience on mobile devices. Tablet worshipers study on! Let us walk you through the new and improved Find whats  relevant  to you with Your Dashboard Already a member? Then the homepage of is now Your Dashboard. You can access this any time by clicking the logo at the top-left of every page. Your dashboard displays activity relevant to you, including a list of questions to answer, Your Stuff (a list of replies to your posts), a link to ask your next question in Homework Help, and easy access to new study guide releases from in Recently Added. Access study tools with ease The sites top navigation bar provides quick and easy access to Homework Help, study guides, document store, and teachers section. To find thousands of literature guides, quizzes, and eTexts, click on the Study Tools drop-down menu. Looks great on your phone, too! Thousands of pages of expert content fit comfortably in the palm of your hand, and with a bright new look to boot. Dont forget, the app is also available for download from iTunes. The hands-down best thing about the app is the instant notification delivered to your phone when your question is answered. Not yet a member? Let us show you how is a powerful tool for students and teachers alike. Visit the new homepage at to discover how we can help you study and teach smarter. When you become a free member of , you receive access to experts answers to students questions at no extra cost. You can also read entire eTexts (with our educators annotations) and practice with hundreds of quizzes, also for free. And when youre ready to ask  your  question we even offer the opportunity to earn Homework Help credits through becoming an TA. What could be easier? Register here or try premium today. We hope you like our new duds as much as we do!

Environmental Scanning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Environmental Scanning - Essay Example Of all efforts, which are aimed at improving processes in an organisation, it is the alignment of the organisation with its environment that is the single most important to an organisation's success. Therefore, in an effort to align an organisation with its environment, it is very important that an organisation carries out environmental scanning and scenario planning. According to (Saxby, Parker, Nitse, & Dishman, 2002) environmental scanning is quite an involving process, which requires strategic planning, and the involvement of heavy resources to execute. Environmental scanning for any given business involves acquiring and using information surrounding key organizational events, market trends and other important trends as well as external relationships between an organisation and its partners, shareholders, as well as the customers (Aguillar, 1967). Environmental scanning is important in that the knowledge an organisation acquires from carrying out the process enables the organisation to carry out strategic planning especially in regard to how the organisation should respond to future challenges, respond to competitor activity as well as respond to the market environment. This is very important to any organisation considering that for an organisation long term planning is as important as the short term planning. Therefore failing to carry out a thorough environmental scanning is likely to result into loss of business for the company or in some cases losing out on market shares. Environmental scanning is important in that it positions the organisation to foresee future threats; an environmental scanning helps the organisation to identify future opportunities occasioned by political, economical as well as social factors. Unless the organisation is able to identify what the future holds for the company, it is very unlikely that such an organisation would continue satisfying its customers. Lack of proper environmental scanning results into loss of market share something, which can adversely affect organizational expansion and extension plans. Therefore environmental scanning should be carried in such a way so as to enable an organisation to face the future with certainty as well as plan the possible scenarios and course of action incase things do not work according to plan. Environmental scanning involves several steps, which include undirected viewing, conditioned viewing, enacting as well as searching (Kohn, 2005). Environment requires the correct analysis of the industry, which the organisation belongs to. Therefore viewing involves actual observation of the organisation activities, noting any difficult or challenging situations, which seem detrimental to the organizational success. Viewing enables an organisation to take note of environmental factors or issues, which require be looking at and resolved. Viewing is the right step, which results, into identification of environmental issues, which are a threat to the organisation, or on the other hand, viewing generates information or insight into opportunities in the market which if further analysed can present the organisation with greater avenues for growth. Undirected viewing according to (Aguillar, 1967) involves a situation whereby an organisation fails to invest the necessary

Junk 'mail' - nuisance or opportunity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Junk 'mail' - nuisance or opportunity - Essay Example For example, it would not make sense to send direct mailings in a mass strategy when there is only a fraction of the population with the cash resources to buy your product. At the leadership level, direct mail can be a disadvantage if the business does not have a well-trained and knowledgeable marketing staff able to ensure the information is targeted correctly. A recent study identified that many consumers would not even bother to open a piece of direct mail if they noticed an obvious mistake (McLuhan, 2008). This would require the company to closely monitor issues of editing and content when developing the direct mail literature. Sometimes these are sent out to third party printers, which make error correction and checking prior to mailing very important. Even in the electronic mail environment, if the information has grammatical errors it can be a serious disadvantage to company reputation. This is especially true considering that three quarters of all consumers surveyed said they would not even open the junk mail. There are advantages to junk mail, however, including growth in sales coming from catalogues. â€Å"The catalogue is seen as something of a renaissance marketing tool† which generated sales of over  £3.6 billion in 2004 (Marketing Week, 2005, p.37). This means that there are consumers who are attracted by the look and pictures of catalogues or they simply find them to be convenient methods to order merchandise. For the older consumer who might be intimidated by the online environment, catalogues sent to this group will likely have more sales results. Growth in the Internet across the world continues to climb as nations become more developed and have better electronic infrastructures. With more people online, this represents more marketing opportunity to reach more audiences and find more sales growth. Even

Milgram's Experiments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Milgram's Experiments - Essay Example After World War II, in the Nuremberg War Crimes trials, a common defense of those accused of these crimes against humanity was "obedience.". The prevalence of this justification is what prompted Stanley Milgram to perform his experiments. Milgram's experiments focused on the conflict between obedience to authority and a person's conscience. Milgram recruited participants through newspaper advertisements calling for anyone interested in getting paid for participating in an experiment supposedly intending to determine the effect of punishment on learning. The participant (the subject) is introduced to a stern-looking experimenter in a white coat and to a second 'participant' that the subject understands was recruited in the same way that he was. This second participant, who is pleasant and friendly to the subject, is actually an accomplice of the experimenter. Under the directions of the experimenter the subject, given the role of "teacher", is made to inflict electric shocks of increasing power for every mistake that the other "participant" (the "learner") makes in answering some questions. The experimenter and the teacher are in the same room while the learner is in an adjoining room. 65% of the teachers obeyed all orders and went to the maximum of 450 volts administered to the learner, even though most of the subjects were extremely uncomfortable in delivering the punishment. None of the subjects stopped "punishing" before reaching 300 volts.

Petty Officer Of The Navy Commerce Essay

Petty Officer Of The Navy Commerce Essay Responsibility, authority, and accountability always go hand in hand. Its known that the more authority one has then the need of being more responsible and accountable. Figures in authority have to bear a lot of responsibility and with the weighty decisions they make they have to be we see the need of all that. Petty officers also commonly know as the PO is a leader with authority in the navy. They are involved in the decision making process and the delegation of duties to the naval crew. They come up with the strategies and they are responsible for all the actions being executed. Being a leader you always have to lead by example and be willing to teach and take the necessary corrections when the need arises. The PO has a lot to do concerning corrections. They are charge with the responsibility of warning and reprimanding the personnel. They also put the personnel on the report if there are any mistakes they have done in line of duty. Tasks given to them might not be easy to undertake but they come as part of the responsibility they have. There is the utilization of the principle of delegation of authority in the workforce. This authority is the responsibility of the officers since they are the ones who are responsible for the actions of their juniors. Everyone who has been assigned a particular task has the obligation of accomplishing it, hence there is completion of the tasks. In the navy cases of bad behavior are always there. One can say that you cannot expect every one to behave exceptionally well given that they were all brought up differently and in different environments. Many things can bring up the negative side of an individual. Depending on the conditions and the environment a person is in, the character of the given person is expected to show up though the same person may try as much as possible to hide it. In the navy for example, the sailors always go on expeditions which can last for several months without one having to step on land. Many sailors will experience sea sickness while others may develop psychological problems. The most important thing when this happens is if the affected officer will cope with what is affecting there them. Carrying naval officers on board who are not in their correct state of mind can prove costly especially in circumstances such as during war. Every marine on board should be able to think exceptionally well and perform a given task as needed. Whenever the sailors achieve anything good they all take credit for it and do the same when everything does wrong they dont point fingers at any of them because they are a team. Whom do we blame when things go wrong? Some can say its the people who were assigned the task, others can argue that its the leaders or simply those put oversee the complete of the task. Both sides could be right but they could also be wrong. Different circumstances result in different measures being taken to correct them. When instructions are given it is upon the person giving them out to ensure that they are all followed and also the person given to follow them as needed (Stavridis Girrier, 2004). Importance of good behavior Military schools and academies are said to give the best training towards a persons character. They mould them into dependable people whom their countries have much expectation on. When they leave the academies, one can easily tell whop has changed or not. Others might not be able to change at all. While on the navy there are those who tend to break the rules. The petty officer is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that the regulations set are followed. Whenever something goes wrong he will be answerable many things the crew has done. We find that the behavior of any given officer a matters a lot. Some incidents can bring diplomatic rows, others may be detrimental to the force but for a force to stand its ground there should be mechanisms which are in place to correct any irregularity when it arises. Thought its not at a high level of command the position held by the petty officer plays an important role by correcting mistakes made. OP is tasked with ensuring the safety of his crew. Excising ones authority over grownups can be challenging having in mind that the person you are in-charge is the same age as you or could be even older. One has to be responsible and accountable. The example you set may make someone to respect or despise you as a leader. Disciple is an important aspect of any military unit. There is no exception when it comes to the navy as well. For order to be their, there has to be discipline within then people concerned. People have to behave. Many sailors exhibit high sense of discipline. They do as they are ordered to do by those above them in the chains of command. You find that orders given are done as needed with few doing the opposite of that. Some orders may come from the highest order of command. When such an order is given and it has to be done by the most junior person in the command line its the sole responsibility of those who have been delegated the order to ensure that the task is c ompleted and if not it would be against the military discipline that you always have to followed orders from your superiors and ensure that they are done. When a junior officer misbehaves and a petty officer is around the PO has to punish the misbehaving officer or he will be reprimanded. All the petty officers are charged with the responsibility of chain of command. There must be indication to all of them that one is punishable incases of any instances of inappropriate behavior in the chain of command. When they do the punishment they are assuming their moral of authority and undertaking his responsibility. Punishment is another way of instilling discipline. Depending on the seriousness of the rules broken the type of punishment also varies. If there is a fight and a petty officer is present it is his responsibility to punish the responsible offenders. The authority given to the petty officer has to be used where needed. Accountability is a quality that a petty officer must also have. When you punish a person for a mistake he/she has done you should be able to give an account of what the person had done to warrant such a punishment. Some punishments can be too harsh and when the person being punished complains you have to take the explain reasons why you think the punishment is the right one and that you are not biased against the person. Being a petty officer, it could be a hard thing making decisions which are right or even making any given decision. Being a human being can sometimes make life hard for us. This happens when making decisions which can change a persons life forever. An example is writing a report which could lead to someone being sacked. No one would like to see a person suffer after losing a job. Being in such a situation is tough even for a PO but one has to choose between doing your job and giving the person another chance. On being given the rank of the petty officer it came with a responsibility that requires one to do the job as is expected. The person who committed the offence is guilty as charged because he had the option of not committing the offence in the first place. The person did not behave as expected prompting action to be taken against him. A mistake by one officer of a naval unit may bring an internal conflict within the unit and when there is a conflict; coordination between the officers cannot be at its best. This can raise a security situation depending on what activity the navy was involved in though there has to be unity every time and also the reason we find the need of positions like that of the petty officer. Effects of disrespect to authority Respect is a virtue that has to be earned. It is not something that one can demand for. To get respect one has to earn it. One can earn respect just as easily as one can lose it. Its one of the military core values. Officers in military have to respect each other so that discipline can prevail. Senior officers in the military are to ensure that junior soldiers respect one another. Like in the navy the petty officers are among those who are tasked with ensuring that junior officers respect each other. They as leaders try to do their best at enforcing respect and discipline within the officers. Disrespect on the other hand can be termed as that the show of indifference towards figures in authority. Within the navy there are cultures and courtesies to be observed. When a naval officer does not observe these courtesies it can be termed as disrespect. It is hard sometimes to tell when someone shows disrespect to a person unless someone speaks up while in some cases signs of disrespect can be easily noted. For example not making the customary salute to a superior officer when you are supposed to do so is a sign of disrespect. Being rude to your superiors is also termed as disrespect. Another example of disrespect is using uncouth language in the presence of your superior or when referring to the officer while using the same language. The superior officer does not have to be there for it to be considered disrespect. The military runs smoothly on trust but trust cannot exist if there is no respect. It always takes a lot to earn a soldiers trust then respect. Why would an officers respect a superior officer they cannot trust? As a leader a petty officer need to have the ability to guide direct and influence the people who are his juniors. This is leading by example. There have been many cases of disrespect within the military. When such a thing happens those involved usually have a case to answer to the superiors. It is said if you cant respect anyone in authority then at-least respect the position the person is holding. Any disrespect towards the authority is usually punishable in many countries. Military units are not left out of this. When a soldier in a military unit is punished, the person doing the punishment should have in mind that the officer must not be demoralized but instead take the punishment positively and not to repeat the same mistake. Perception of respect varies for different people. Something might be perceived as disrespect by one party but another party can perceive it differently. The perception usually has an effect on the kind of punishment given. Some punishments can be termed as harsh while others lenient. People have been imprisoned for disrespecting those in authority. Many of these cases are undertaken by dictatorial regimes. In countries with open democracy imprisoning a person because of disrespect are not common. Signs of disrespect cannot be taken kindly in military institutions. People are sometimes suspended pending investigation. When the investigation is complete some loose their jobs, some are transferred to different stations while others continue in their suspension. When a very junior officer in a military unit disrespects another one with very senior position, blame may be directed towards the immediate superiors of the officer and it assumed that they allowed such a behavior to develop by not taking any action to correct that same mistake that the officer showed. Rarely do we find junior officer disrespecting their seniors but few cases occur. As part of the responsibility of a petty officer, it is part of their work to instill discipline on the junior officers. They should also be accountable when a junior officer shows disrespect to those superior to him and even those on the same rank (Montor, 1998). Before any punishment is given to any officer it has to be approved by a court- martial and the maximum punishment would be being discharged because of inappropriate behavior, going without pay and allowances and detention for a year. Unauthorized absence of a sailor from his post There are many forms of absenteeism. The sailor might not go to the place of duty at all or that he goes to his post then leaves it to go somewhere else without any authority or reason given for absenting oneself. The unauthorized absence means that the sailor knew he had to be at the specified place at that time or, he had been ordered to be there but failed to be there. The punishment for not being at the intended place at a given time will be determined by a court martial. Before any punishment is given out it has to be proven that the accused knew that he was supposed to be there and had absented himself from certain exercises he knew of. They always depend on circumstantial evidence for this. Unauthorized absence can be through motivated forms of the same like a situation where one leaves his post with the intention of leaving it untended. One may not really have the intention of unauthorized absence while being held by civilian authorities for a crime he committed or might not have committed. One is punished is if he is found guilty of that crime. The duration being held does not matter that much. Whether one was on leave or not and is being held by civilian authorities it does not give a person an excuse of being absent neither can it be said that it was intentional. Conviction does not also give the person an excuse not return to his post as what happened is was a result of his own intentions. The only situation where one is found to be innocent is if he is released by the authorities with no trial being done or if the person was on leave when he was arrested but was later proven innocent after hearing the case. Sometimes sickness, lack of transport facilities make one absent from his post and is part of unauthorized absence but when reviewing the offence committed by the person it should be given careful considerations before judgment is passed (Mack, Seymour McComas, 1998). After unauthorized absence there are ways where the unauthorized absence can be written off. When one is been arrested by civilian authorities before the navy gives any request, informing the navy of the arrest makes the absentee available for return to navy control. While under military control the absence is terminated. Surrendering oneself to military authority and notifying them of your unauthorized absence shows that you are wiling to submit yourself to there control. This also brings to an end illegal absence. Other ways which the unauthorized absence can be terminated are when the absentee is personally arrested by the navy and arrest of the absentee at the request of the navy. In some cases one can be found to be absent more than once under a single specification. Unauthorized absence by the naval officer from his post is punishable but the punishment usually depends mostly on how long the sailor had been absent. For the naval officer or sailor if he fails to go to his post for a time not more than three days he will have to go without two-thirds of his monthly income for a period of one month and will also be confined for the same duration of time. If the sailor absents himself for a period of less than thirty days but more than three days he will just be earning a third of his usual monthly in come and will be confined for half a year. For an absence of more than thirty days the sailor will not get his pay but also go into detention for one year. He will also have a dishonorable discharge. If the sailor is arrested after being absent for more than a month the sentence would be the same but he will be detained for six more months. For other forms of absence like absence from his post as a guard and absence as a guard but with the will of bein g absent, he would get the following sentences respectively: being detained for a quarter of a year while he earns a third of his salary. The other sentence would be going without pay, will be detained for half a year and be discharged from the force for bad-conduct. We can now determine that the absence of the sailor from his post would be punishable unless it is proven that it did not happen out of his own will. In conclusion every one in the force has to be responsible and accountable in whatever they do as any action undertaken has an effect which can either be positive or negative.

Introduction to Special Education Essay

* students with exceptionalities exhibit differences in learning and behaviour that significantly affect their educational potential – they have exceptional needs that cannot be met by typical approaches to schooling * special education is constructed and delivered to suit the specific strengths and needs of students with exceptionalities The Modern History Of Special Education. * special types of educational services provided as far back as the 18th century * modern era of special education began in the 1960s during the civil rights movement (rejected existing practices of separately educating students who were different) * early forms of special education designed to reduce perceived threats to normal students History Of Special Education (Legislation Affecting Special Education) * some Canadian provinces enacted special education legislation as early as 1969 * 1975 – ground breaking legislation in U. S.  Education for All Handicapped Children Act. * least restrictive environment * individualized education program (IEP) * categories of exceptionality * 1978 – Javits Gifted & Talented Students Act brought number of identifiable categories to eleven * 1990 – Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) added traumatic brain injury and autism to create the thirteen categories used today * IDEA – â€Å"children with disabilities† instead of â€Å"disabled children† The No Child Left Behind Act: signed into law in 2002 * addresses four critical concerns. * accountability of educators for student academic achievement * flexibility of specialized funding implementation to maximize student achievement * option for parents to change child’s school if achievement is not at expected level * use of scientifically proven methods to have all children reading by end of grade three Is NCLB Making a Difference? Criticisms: * students with exceptionalities not exempt from district-wide or state-wide yearly achievement tests (law recently changed – flexibility option) * lack of available funding. * more emphasis placed on math and reading at the expense of other curricular topics To date, NCLB legislation has not significantly affected special education practices in Canada. How Is Special Education In Canada And The United States Similar? * basic practices follow the same conceptual models * major difference is way it is governed * U. S. operates under federally-mandated laws * each Canadian province and territory has own education legislation * most relevant federal law in Canada is Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Prevalence Of Students With Exceptionalities * vast majority of classrooms now include students with exceptionalities * statistics difficult to acquire in Canada * U. S. Department of Education (2002) * 8. 8% of all students have exceptionalities * 85% of these have mild disabilities * twice as many males as females Inclusionary Practices * until the mid 1980s, special education services delivered wholly or partially separated from regular classrooms * all Canadian provinces have currently adopted philosophy of inclusion. * students with exceptionalities are provided with appropriate educational programming in  appropriate environments * regular classroom is first placement option * Inclusionary Practices * inclusion better than integration or mainstreaming because it does not try to â€Å"fix the child† to suit the system * inclusion does not replace the term special education because it does not provide specific definitions for implementation * educators support inclusion but are concerned about its lack of procedures for implementation Non-Categorical Model. * data-based approach to instructional planning * does not rely on specific labels * proponents feel that labels frequently stigmatize, isolate, and stereotype individuals with exceptionalities * more concerned with functional educational services than outcomes of assessments Categorical Model * students’ needs and abilities are defined and then identified, classified, and categorized * most widely used and accepted approach. * allows educators to design effective educational interventions without over-generalizing the characteristics of specific categories to any one child * textbook emphasizes categorical model * teachers need to know the criteria used to identify students with exceptionalities and how the criteria varies across categories * allows teachers to readily notice problems that children may be having * eliminates confusion and frustration when teaching students with exceptionalities.

The New World

The Spanish, French and English explored America and left a lasting mark on the New World’s development. Different methods of colonization were used by the Spanish, French and English. The Spanish and English had similar ways of colonization, and the French had quite a different style. When he Spanish conquered the New World, they were the most wealthy and powerful of the three. The Spanish brought epidemic disease that depopulated areas over many years causing civilizations to collapse, along with brutal killings of Natives.Spanish integration with the Indians over time resulted into a modern distinction between Latinos and Spanish into a new population. Forced labor and Christianity pushed the Spanish wealth into accidental discoveries of Tobacco, Chocolate, and Vanilla Spices. The English were similar to the Spanish of their brutal behavior towards the Natives, slavery and the epidemic of disease. On discovering the America’s, a belief of new shipping lanes were form ed. This proved to be an advantage for trading because it provided quicker routes.Agriculture was founded and traded due to success of using slavery. Gold, copper and the products of farming were traded and used for power. The French had a very different approach unlike the Spanish and English, as they used commerce versus conquer. Accidently being discovered while exploring, the French came across the Natives and started trading furs. This turned out to be long lasting relationship and provided a different way to cohabitate with the Native’s, instead of taking the land.The Spanish, English and French had similarities that were common. The English colonies were better fed and clothed as the French and Spanish had much larger empires. Slavery, trade routes, farming and religion were very common of all, and benefitted in establishing the New World. Faraher, J. M. , Buhle, M. J. , Czitrom, D. , & Armitage, S. H. (2009). Out of Many: A History of the American People (5th ed. ). U pper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

No Country for English

No Country for English No Country for English No Country for English By Maeve Maddox In preparing to write a review of No Country for Old Men, I glanced at some online discussions of the film to see what other people were saying. The grammarian in me overcame the movie critic as I found myself paying more attention to the mode of expression than the thoughts being expressed. In Dustins Review of the film I found three items that distracted me from the content. 1. Of the character Sheriff Ed Tom Bell, the reviewer observes just as he has previously laid witness to similar atrocities over the decades One lays claim to something, but one simply witnesses an atrocity. 2. Again speaking of the sheriff, the reviewer says all he tragically finds in Gods place is an empty void Since the word void means empty or an empty place. it seems a case of belt and suspenders to talk about an empty void. 3. Of the killer, played by Javier Bardem, the reviewer says Whenever he comes in contact with someone, the viewer holds their breath, quite aware of the extent to which he is capable of. In addition to the agreement problem of the viewer holds their breath (which some readers may wish to defend), theres another problem: quite aware of the extent to which he is capable of. Three separate idioms have been crammed into one convoluted sentence. Lets break it down. This killer is a psychopath who kills human beings the way farmers slaughter beef. Very quickly the movie-goer knows that this person would as soon kill you as look at you. The viewer, therefore, is aware of what the killer is capable of. The viewer is aware of the extent of the killers depravity. The viewer is aware of the extremes to which the killer will go. A lot of work has gone into the site on which this review appears. It may contain some outstanding reviews. Its a shame that the first article Ive read contains such careless writing. I now hesitate to look at the others. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:15 Terms for Those Who Tell the Future3 Cases of Complicated HyphenationPhrasal Verbs and Phrasal Nouns

The Medical Similarities Between Dogs and People.

The Medical Similarities Between Dogs and People. Even though animals and humans are of different species, there are definite similarities in their behavior and health care. Dogs, like humans, require periodic health checkups. Additionally, dogs, like babies, cannot verbalize their pains. However, changes in behavior, such as: lack of appetite, tiredness, crying, and lack of energy are indications to their owners or parents that something is wrong or bothering them. There are many examples that can illustrate these parallels in human and canine life. These comparisons are evident practically from birth.Puppies instinctively breast-feed. Their mother's first milk, called colostrum (thin yellowish fluid filled with protein, anti-bodies and minerals), gives them protection from disease germs. The antibodies in the mother's milk protect the puppies for about the first six weeks. These antibodies come either from the mother's own experience in fighting disease, or from vaccines that the mother received. When this maternal immunity is in affect, it also blocks the effectiveness of vaccines in the newborn puppies.English: Dr. Amir Karam Performing Fat Transfer to...Therefore vaccinations are not given until the puppies are seven to eight weeks old. At that point, the maternal immunity has started to wear off. ('Pet Medicine' p.25)Vaccinations for puppies continue every few weeks until they are fourteen weeks old. Booster shots must also be given at various intervals. Dogs who are not given their regular shots can develop otherwise preventable diseases. ('Pet Medicine' p.25)Babies breast-feed the same way as puppies do, and for the same reasons. Babies receive immunity to various infections through the colostrum (the fluid that comes out before the actual milk and with the milk). Even though it contains very little iron, breast milk has a form of iron that is unusually well digested and absorbed by the baby. Most breast-feeding stops between nine to twelve months of age, however some children nurse until...

Wal-Mart Article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Wal-Mart Article - Essay Example Much of Walmart success in Mexico can be attributed to NAFTA. NAFTA solved the logistics problems that Walmart faced by improving infrastructure. This enabled Walmart to transport the goods and open up more stores across Mexico with much ease than before. The reduced import tariffs also encouraged importation of goods from other countries and this enabled Walmart to reduce the prices of their goods thereby attracting more customers. Walmart success in the region is also a result of Walmart’s high bargaining power, which enables it to obtain goods at a fair deal thus offering its customers much lower prices than other retail stores. Walmart has been a threat to other retail stores in the region. As Walmart continues to reduce the prices of goods, other retail stores such as Comerci reduced the prices too to combat the completion. Comerci and other retail stores have also filed complain to Mexico’s federal competition commission to curb the unfair pricing. This kind of strategy can only be helpful to Comerci if price control bill is passed. With the stiff competition from Walmart, other retailers need to come up with other new strategies to enable them remain in the market. The need for other retailers to improve on their bargaining skills is also of great importance, as it will enable the retailers reduce prices as Walmart. Opening production plants for some good may also help combat the competition Walmart brought in Mexico since this will enable the retailers obtain goods at rather reduced

Millstream Hotel and Restaurant Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Millstream Hotel and Restaurant - Article Example The elegant sitting room, with its comfortable and luxurious, grand piano, sprinkled with freshly cut flowers and peaceful ambiance, is the ideal place to chat up with friends over afternoon tea or an aperitif. Bosham is an ideal center from which to discover this area of spectacular natural beauty and historical interest.   This beautiful hotel has 35 rooms out of which three are suites and each room is decorated in a uniquely elegant fashion with all the necessary amenities for a luxurious and comfortable stay. The hotel is located close to some good recreational facilities like golf, sailing, squash, riding and water sports which can be easily accessed. The popular restaurant is open all through the year and serves some of the most excellent delicacies in that part of town. There are a few famous historical attractions for the holidaymakers like Chichester Festival Theatre, Fishbourne Roman Palace, and West Dean Gardens. On a sunny day, the lawns can be inviting where you can relax under the shade and enjoy the ducks in the nearby lake. You can enjoy a pleasant evening in the beautiful and well-kept gardens along with your friends and family over a cup of tea and delicious snacks. A well maintained and luxurious spa can add a lot of value to the residents who can relax and enjoy a good massage or get pampered in style. The spa is the latest trend in the hotel industry around the world. You can add on a spa facility or take on a branded spa on the franchise which can boost your hotels' facility outlook to a great extent. Most of the clients now expect a spa in the hotel as they look for a complete relaxation package when checking into a hotel. The wellness tourism has caught on in a big way where health and wellness spas are frequented by tourists who are becoming health and beauty conscious. A well-equipped spa can provide guests with Jacuzzi, steam, sauna, exotic massages and various other treatments that would add on to the luxury of the hotel.  

PESTLE Analysis Google Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

PESTLE Analysis Google - Lab Report Example The organization is full of young life and has been serving thousands of customers and user since its incorporation (Google, 2013a). The primary source of revenue is the online advertisements. As on 2011, the core areas on which the business focused was enterprise, operating system and platform, advertising and search. The business used its AdWords programs to promote their services and products with targeted advertising. Apart from this, the third party that included Google Network used its AdSense that delivered relevant advertisements and generated revenue (The New York Times, 2013). The study focuses on Google Inc., understands the methods followed by the company, conducts a PESTLE analysis and decides on the future performance of the organization. The Methods Google is known for its search engine. Larry Page describes a perfect search engine is one which exactly understands what the user wants and gives him back exactly that particular thing. Google has not kept itself restricte d to search engine only but has started offering products beyond that. They have shown whole lot of technological advancement staring from search to Gmail and Chrome. The goal of the organization remains the same; to assist their users easily access the things they require. Thus, the company follows a faster and smarter approach while developing its product (Google, 2013b). The huge success of the organization is based on the set of methods and beliefs that the company follows. Since the beginning of the organization they focus on providing the best experience to the users. Whatever new innovation they do, they always look towards the expectation of the users and try to fit into their requirements. At the same time when they are designing some new applications or tools they make them work so well that the user do not have to bother about the changes or think about how differently they have been designed. Google has a large pool of researchers who are extensively engaged in solving t he search problems. The company is well aware of what it does and also knows how to make it better. The company continues to make several attempts in order to solve difficult problems and has solved many complex issues. This leads to the improvement of the services that they provide and make the experience and search of the user better. The organization is fully dedicated towards developing innovative products (Google, 2013c). Google believes that time is valuable and this makes the company design their product in such ways that it takes minimum time for the customers to find what they are searching. This is the only company who aims towards making the user leave their website as soon as possible after accomplishing their objectives. This same belief is kept in mind every time the company launches their product whether it is a mobile phone application or a new browser. They understand the demand of the present moment and increasing use of mobile. Today people are seen to use mobile phones for accessing information, which has driven the company to implement new technologies and offer new products and solutions for mobile services that may help the users, present at various corners of the globe to accomplish their task. Google generates their revenue by offering search technologies to various companies and displaying advertisements on their own website and on other sites across the web. Several advertisers take advantage of AdWords to

Organisational cultures Essay Example for Free

Organisational cultures Essay Introduction: defining culture The concept of culture has become increasingly significant in education during the 1990s and into the twenty-first century. This enhanced interest may be understood as an example of dissatisfaction with the limitations of those leadership and man- agement models which stress the structural and technical aspects of schools and colleges. The focus on the intangible world of values and attitudes is a useful counter to these bureaucratic assumptions and helps to produce a more balanced portrait of educational institutions. Culture relates to the informal aspects of organisations rather then their official elements. They focus on the values, beliefs and norms of individuals in the organi- sation and how these individual perceptions coalesce into shared meanings. Culture is manifested by symbols and rituals rather than through the formal structure of the organization: Beliefs, values and ideology are at the heart of organisations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value-preferences which influence how they behave and how they view the behaviour of other members. These norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are rein- forced by symbols and ritual. (Bush 2003, p.156). The developing importance of culture arises partly from a wish to understand, and operate more effectively within, this informal domain of the values and beliefs of teachers, support staff and other stakeholders. Morgan (1997) and ONeill (1994) both stress the increasing significance of cultural factors in leadership and manage- ment. The latter charts the appearance of cultural labels and suggests why they have become more prevalent: The increased use of such cultural descriptors in the literature of educational management is significant because it reflects a need for educational organiza- tions to be able to articulate deeply held and shared  values in more tangible ways and therefore respond more effectively to new, uncertain and potentially  threatening demands on their capabilities. Organizations, therefore, articulate values in order to provide form and meaning for the activities of organiza- tional members in the absence of visible and certain organizational structures and relationships. In this sense the analysis and influence of organizational culture become essential management tools in the pursuit of increased orga- nizational growth and effectiveness. (ONeill, 1994, p.116) The shift towards self-management in many countries reinforces the notion of schools and colleges as unique entities with their own distinctive features or cul- ture. It is inevitable that self-management will lead to greater diversity and, in Eng- land, this is one of the Governments explicit aims. Caldwell and Spinks (1992) argue that there is a culture of self- management. The essential components of this culture are the empowerment of leaders and their acceptance of responsibility. Societal culture Most of the literature on culture in education relates to organisational culture and that is also the main focus of this chapter. However, there is also an emerging liter- ature on the broader theme of national or societal culture. Dimmock and Walker (2002a, p.3) claim that the field of educational administration †¦ has largely ignored the influence of societal culture but their work has contributed to an increasing awareness of this concept. Given the globalisation of education, issues of societal culture are increasingly sig- nificant. Walker and Dimmock (2002) refer to issues of context and stress the need to avoid decontextualized paradigms (p.1) in researching and analysing educa- tional systems and institutions: The field of educational leadership and management has developed along eth- nocentric lines, being heavily dominated by Anglo-American paradigms and theories †¦ Frequently, either a narrow ethnicity pervades research and policy, or an implicit assumption is made that findings in one part of the world will necessarily apply in others. It is clear that a key factor missing from many debates on educational administration and leadership is context †¦ context is represented by societal culture and its mediating influence on theory, policy and practice. (Walker and Dimmock 2002, p.2) Walker and Dimmock are by no means alone in advocating attention to issues of context. Crossley and Broadfoot (1992, p.100) say that policies and practice cannot be translated intact from one culture to another since the mediation of different cultural contexts can quite transform the latters salience while Bush et al. (1998, p.137) stress that all theories and interpretations of practice must be grounded in the specific context †¦ before they can be regarded as useful. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION48 Dimmock and Walker (2002b, p.71) have given sustained attention to these issues and provide a helpful distinction between societal and organizational culture: Societal cultures differ mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational cultures differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices, as reflected in the recognition of particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organiza- tional cultures to be deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods. School leaders influence, and in turn are influenced by, the orga- nizational culture. Societal culture, on the other hand, is a given, being out- side the sphere of influence of an individual school leader. (Our emphasis) Dimmock and Walker (2002b) identify seven dimensions of societal culture,  each of which is expressed as a continuum: 1 Power-distributed/power concentrated: power is either distributed more equally among the various levels of a culture or is more concentrated. 2 Group-oriented/self-oriented: people in self-oriented cultures perceive themselves to be more independent and self-reliant. In group-oriented cultures, ties between people are tight, relationships are firmly structured and individual needs are sub- servient to the collective needs. 3 Consideration/aggression: in aggression cultures, achievement is stressed, competi- tion dominates and conflicts are resolved through the exercise of power and assertiveness. In contrast, consideration societies emphasise relationship, solidar- ity and resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation. 4 Proactivism/fatalism: this dimension reflects the proactive or we can change things around here attitude in some cultures, and the willingness to accept things as they are in others a fatalistic perspective. 5 Generative/replicative: some cultures appear more predisposed towards innovation, or the generation of new ideas and methods, whereas other cultures appear more inclined to replicate or to adopt ideas and approaches from elsewhere. 6 Limited relationship/holistic relationship: in limited relationship cultures, interac- tions and relationships tend to be determined by explicit rules which are applied to everyone. In holistic cultures, greater attention is given to relationship oblig- ations, for example kinship, patronage and friendship, than to impartially applied rules. 7 Male influence/female influence: in some societies, the male domination of deci- sion-making in political, economic and professional life is perpetuated. In others, women have come to play a significant role. (adapted from Dimmock and Walker 2002b, pp.74-6). This model can be applied to educational systems in different countries. Bush and Qiang (2000) show that most of these dimensions are relevant to Chinese education: 49ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES †¢ Power is concentrated in the hands of a limited number of leaders. The principal has positional authority within an essentially bureaucratic system †¦ China might be regarded as the archetypal high power-distance (power-concentrated) society (p.60). †¢ Chinese culture is group oriented. Collective benefits [are] seen as more important than individual needs (p.61). †¢ Chinese culture stresses consideration rather than aggression. The Confucian scholars advocate modesty and encourage friendly co-operation, giving priority to peoples relationships. The purpose of education is to mould every individual into a harmonious member of society (p.62). †¢ Patriarchal leadership dominates in education, business, government and the Communist Party itself. There are no women principals in the 89 secondary schools in three counties of the Shaanxi province. Coleman et al. (1998, p.144) attribute such inequalities to the continuing dominance of patriarchy. Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders must operate. Leaders and managers must also be aware of organisational culture which provides a more immediate framework for leadership action. Principals and others can help to shape culture but they are also influenced by it. Chapter 7, for example, refers to the need for educational leaders to be aware of the societal cul- ture underpinning schools and colleges so that appropriate equal opportunities policies and practices can be developed. Central features of organisational culture Organisational culture has the following major features (Bush 2003): 1 It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organisations. These values underpin the behaviour and attitudes of individuals within schools and colleges but they may not always be explicit. These individual beliefs coalesce into shared values: Shared values, shared beliefs, shared meaning, shared understanding, and shared sensemaking are all different ways of describing culture †¦ These pat- terns of understanding also provide a basis for making ones own behaviour sen- sible and meaningful (Morgan, 1997, p.138). This does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one another. Morgan (1997, p.137) suggests that there may be different and competing value systems that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture. Dissonance is more likely in large, multipur- pose organisations such as colleges and universities but Nias et al. (1989) note that they may also exist in primary education. Fullan and Hargreaves (1992, pp. 71-2) argue that some schools develop a balkanized culture made up of separate and sometimes competing groups: LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION50 Teachers in balkanized cultures attach their loyalties and identities to particular groups of their colleagues. They are usually colleagues with whom they work most closely, spend most time, socialize most often in the staffroom. The existence of such groups in a school often reflects and reinforces very different group outlooks on learning, teaching styles, dis- cipline and curriculum. Staff working in sub-units, such as departments, may develop their own dis- tinctive subculture and middle managers, or middle level leaders as the NCSL prefers to call them, may wish to cultivate this as a way of developing and enhancing team effectiveness. However, as Fullan and Hargreaves (1992)  imply, such subcultures may not be consistent with the whole-school or college culture. 2 Organisational culture emphasises the development of shared norms and mean- ings. The assumption is that interaction between members of the organisation, or its subgroups, eventually leads to behavioural norms that gradually become cul- tural features of the school or college. Nias et al.s (1989, pp.39-40) research shows how group norms were established in their case-study schools: As staff talked, worked and relaxed together, they began to negotiate shared meanings which enabled them to predict each others behaviour. Consequently each staff developed its own taken-for-granted norms. Because shared meanings and ways of behaving became so taken for granted, existing staff were largely unaware of them. But they were visi- ble to newcomers †¦ Researchers moving between schools were con- stantly reminded of the uniqueness of each schools norms. These group norms sometimes allow the development of a monoculture in a school with meanings shared throughout the staff the way we do things around here. We have already noted, however, that there may be several subcul- tures based on the professional and personal interests of different groups. These typically have internal coherence but experience difficulty in relationships with other groups whose behavioural norms are different. Wallace and Hall (1994, pp.28 and 127) identify senior management teams (SMTs) as one example of group culture with clear internal norms but often weak connections to other groups and individuals: SMTs in our research developed a culture of teamwork †¦ A norm com- mon to the SMTs was that decisions must be reached by achieving a working consensus, entailing the acknowledgement of any dissenting views †¦ there was a clear distinction between interaction inside the team and contact with those outside †¦ [who] were excluded from the inner world of the team. 3 Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are  used to support and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools, in particular, are rich in such symbols as assemblies, prize-givings and corporate worship. Hoyle (1986, pp.150  and 152) argues that ritual is at the heart of cultural models: Symbols are a key component of the culture of all schools †¦ [they] have expressive tasks and sym- bols which are the only means whereby abstract values can be conveyed †¦ Sym- bols are central to the process of constructing meaning. (Hoyle 1986, pp.150-2). School culture may be symbolized through three modes: (a) Conceptually or verbally, for example through use of language and the expres- sion of organisational aims. (b) Behaviourally, through rituals, ceremonies, rules, support mechanisms, and patterns of social interaction. (c) Visually or materially, through facilities, equipment, memorabilia, mottoes, crests and uniforms. (Beare et al. 1989, p.176). Schein (1997, p.248) argues that rites and rituals [are] central to the deciphering as well as to the communicating of cultural assumptions. 4 Organisational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the values and beliefs of the organisation. These honoured members typify the behaviours associated with the culture of the institution. Campbell-Evans (1993, p. 106) stresses that heroes or heroines are those whose achievements match the cul- ture: Choice and recognition of heroes †¦ occurs within the cultural boundaries identified through the value filter †¦ The accomplishments of those individuals who come to be regarded as heroes are compatible with the cultural emphases. This feature is evident in South Africa, for example, where the huge interest in school sport means that sporting heroes are identified and celebrated. This was evident, for example, in a Durban school visited by one of the authors, where for- mer student Shaun Pollock, the South African fast bowler, had numerous pho- tographs on display and a room named after him. In celebrating the achievements of this cricketing hero, school managers are seeking to emphasise the centrality of sporting achievement to the ethos and culture of the school. Developing a culture of learning in South Africa As we noted earlier (p.000), societal or national culture underpins the organisa- tional culture of individual schools and colleges. Nowhere is this more apparent than in South African schools where the predominant culture reflects the wider social structure of the post-apartheid era. Decades of institutionalised racism and injustice have been replaced by an overt commitment to democracy in all aspects of life, including education. Ngcobo (2003) addresses issues of cultural diversity and, drawing on Irvine (1990), identifies nine dimensions of African culture: †¢ Spirituality: life is viewed as vitalistic rather than mechanistic. †¢ Harmony: humans and nature live interdependently and in harmony. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION52 †¢ Movement: rhythm, music and dance. †¢ Verve: high levels of stimulation. †¢ Affect: emotions and feelings. †¢ Communalism: social connectedness and an awareness of responsibilities to the  group transcending individual privileges. †¢ Expressive individualism: genuine personal expression. †¢ Oral tradition: oral/aural metaphors and colourful forms. †¢ Social time perspective: time as social rather than material space (adapted from Ngcobo 2003, p.224). Ngcobo (2003) notes that these cultural features are very different from European cultures. Such cultural differences became particularly significant as schools began to change their racial composition in response to the South African Schools Act (1996), which made it illegal to deny admission to students on the basis of race. For- merly white schools, with a predominantly European culture, began to assimilate learners, and to a lesser extent educators, from different cultural backgrounds. Ngcobo (2003) gives two contrasting examples of how school leaders responded to these cultural changes. Vryburg high school avoided cultural diversity by dividing the premises into two sections (white and black). This had several deleterious con- sequences, including conflict leading to charges of assault being laid against 14 black learners and seven parents of white students. Greenland secondary school in Durban adopted a different approach, aiming at cultural diversity and encouraging learners and staff to express and celebrate their own cultures. This school has been very successful academically which the principal attributes to the strong integrative culture it promotes (Ngcobo 2003, p.230). The years of struggle against apartheid inevitably affected schools, particularly those in the townships. One of the weapons of the black majority was for young- sters to strike and demonstrate against the policies of the white government. Sim- ilarly, teacher unions were an important aspect of the liberation movement and teachers would frequently be absent from school to engage in protest activity. It is perhaps inevitable that a culture of learning was difficult to establish in such a hos- tile climate. Badat (1995, p.143) claims that the crisis in black education, including what has come to be referred to as the breakdown in the culture of learning †¦ continued unabated. This issue surfaced in Bush and Andersons (2003) survey of school principals in the KwaZulu/Natal province. In response to a question about the aims of the school, principals stated that: †¢ the school is striving to instill in the minds of learners that education is their future †¢ to show the importance of education within and outside the school †¢ to provide a conducive educational environment †¢ to develop a culture of learning. 53ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES The absence of a culture of learning in many South African schools illustrates the long-term and uncertain nature of cultural change. The long years of resistance to apartheid education have to be replaced by a commitment to teaching and learn- ing if South Africa is to thrive in an increasingly competitive world economy. How- ever, educational values have to compete with the still prevalent discourse of struggle and also have to reconcile the diverse value systems of the different sub- cultures in South Africas integrated schools. It seems likely that the development of a genuine culture of learning will be slow and dependent on the quality of lead- ership in individual schools. Leadership and culture We noted earlier (p.000) that societal culture is beyond the control of educational leaders but heads and principals are able to influence organisational culture. Arguably, they have the main responsibility for generating and sustaining culture and communicating core values and beliefs both within the organization and to external stakeholders (Bush 1998, p.43). Heads and principals have their own val- ues and beliefs arising from many years of successful professional practice. They are also expected to embody the culture of the school or college. Hoyle (1986, pp.155-6) stresses the symbolic dimension of leadership and the central role of heads in defining school culture: Few heads will avoid constructing an image of the school. They will differ in the degree to which this is a deliberate and charismatic task. Some heads †¦Ã‚  will self- consciously seek to construct a great mission for the school. Others will convey their idea of the school less dramatically and construct a meaning from the basic materials of symbol-making: words, actions, artefacts and settings. Schein (1997, p.211) argues that cultures spring primarily from the beliefs, values and assumptions of founders of organisations. Nias et al. (1989, p. 103) suggest that heads are founders of their schools culture. They refer to two of their English case study schools where new heads dismantled the existing culture in order to create a new one based on their own values. The culture was rebuilt through example: All the heads of the project schools were aware of the power of example. Each head expected to influence staff through his/her example. Yet their actions may also have been symbolic of the values they tried to represent. Nias et al. (1989) also mention the significance of co-leaders, such as deputy heads and curriculum co-ordinators, in disseminating school culture. Deal (1985, pp.615-18) suggests several strategies for leaders who wish to gener- ate culture: †¢ Document the schools history to be codified and passed on. †¢ Anoint and celebrate heroes and heroines. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION54 †¢ Review the schools rituals to convey cultural values and beliefs. †¢ Exploit and develop ceremony. †¢ Identify priests, priestesses and gossips, and incorporate them into mainstream  activity. This provides access to the informal communications network. One of the ways in which leaders can shape or change culture is through the appointment of other staff who have the same values and beliefs, leading to cultural consonance. In this view, the staff selection process provides an opportunity to set out the values of the school, or its leaders, in the hope  that those who hold similar values will be attracted to the post while others will be deterred from making or pur- suing an application. Over time, the culture of the school will shift in the direction sought by the principal. The literature on collegiality (e.g. Bush 2003) shows that leaders are more likely to cede power to others when they are confident that their own educational values will not be compromised by doing so. Foskett and Lumby (2003) point out that staff selection processes are themselves subject to cultural variables. They draw on Akinnusi (1991) to distinguish between universalistic and particularistic approaches to selection. The universalistic approach, as discussed in Chapter 9 of this volume, for example, attempts to match applicants to objective criteria and is thought to be more successful in identifying the best match to the vacant post (Foskett and Lumby 2003, p.71). These authors contrast this model with the particularistic approach adopted, for example, in Africa and in China. Here, selection is shaped by the personal affiliation of the players, for example kinship, religion, ethnic or political similarities (p.70). This approach is likely to be successful in ensuring that the appointees have similar val- ues to the leaders. Using cultural criteria to appoint new staff may help to modify culture but the established staff, and inertia, may still ensure that change is highly problematic. Reynolds (1996) refers to one school where the prevailing culture was posing severe difficulties for any purported change attempts (p.153). He point to multiple barri- ers to change including: †¢ staff wanted top down change and not ownership †¢ weve always done it this way †¢ individual reluctance to challenge the prevailing culture †¢ staff blaming childrens home background for examination failure †¢ numerous personality clashes, personal agendas and fractured interpersonal rela-tionships (Reynolds 1996, pp.153-4). This example illustrates the difficulty of attempting to impose cultural change. As one former college principal stresses, [it is] dangerous †¦ for  managers to move too fast on cultural change (Bridge 1994, p.197). Turner (1990, p.11) acknowledges the pressures on leaders to mould culture but rejects the belief that something as pow- erful as culture can be much affected by the puny efforts of top managers. 55ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES Hargreaves (1999, p.59) makes a similar point, claiming that most peoples beliefs, attitudes and values are far more resistant to change than leaders typically allow. He identifies three circumstances when culture may be subject to rapid change: †¢ The school faces an obvious crisis, for example a highly critical inspection report or falling pupil numbers, leading to the prospect of staff redundancies or school closure. †¢ The leader is very charismatic, commanding instant trust, loyalty and fellowship. This may enable cultural change to be more radical and be achieved more quickly. †¢ The leader succeeds a very poor principal. Staff will be looking for change to instil a new sense of direction (adapted from Hargreaves 1999, pp.59-60). These points may also apply to sub-units and subcultures. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) concludes that, if none of these special conditions applies, assume that cultural change will be rather slow. Leaders also have responsibility for sustaining culture, and cultural maintenance is often regarded as a central feature of effective leadership. Sergiovanni (1984, p.9) claims that the cultural aspect is the most important dimension of leadership. Within his leadership forces hierarchy, the cultural element is more significant than the technical, human and educational aspects of leadership: The net effect of the cultural force of leadership is to bond together  students, teachers, and others as believers in the work of the school †¦ As persons become members of this strong and binding culture, they are provided with opportunities for enjoying a special sense of personal importance and significance. Limitations of organisational culture The concept of organisational culture provides several useful elements to the lead- ership and management of people in schools and colleges. The focus on the infor- mal dimension is a valuable counter to the rigid and official components of the formal models. By stressing the values and beliefs of participants, culture reinforces the human aspects of management rather than their structural elements. However, this approach has three significant weaknesses (Bush 2003): 1 The notion of organisational culture may simply be the imposition of the leaders values on other members of the organisation. The search for a monoculture may mean subordinating the values and beliefs of some participants to those of leaders or the dominant group. Shared cultures may be simply the values of leaders imposed on less powerful people. Morgan (1997) refers to a process of ideological  control and warns of the risk of manipulation: Ideological manipulation and control is being advocated as an essential managerial strategy †¦ such manipulation may well be accompanied by resistance, resentment and mistrust †¦ where the culture controls rather than expresses human character, the metaphor may thus prove quite manipulative and totalitarian in its influence. (pp.150-1) Prosser (1999, p.4) refers to the dark underworld of school culture and links it to the concept of micropolitics: The micro-political perspective recognized that formal powers, rules, regulations, traditions and rituals  were capable of being subverted by individuals, groups or affiliations in schools. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) uses the term resistance group to refer to sub-units seeking to subvert lead- ers and their intended cultural change. However, this may simply be a legitimate attempt to enunciate the specific values of, for example, departmental culture. 2 The portrayal of culture may be unduly mechanistic, assuming that leaders can determine the culture of the organisation (Morgan 1997). While they have influ- ence over the evolution of culture by espousing desired values, they cannot ensure the emergence of a monoculture. As we have seen, secondary schools and colleges may have several subcultures operating in departments and other sec- tions. This is not necessarily dysfunctional because successful sub-units are vital components of thriving institutions, and successful middle-level leadership and management are increasingly regarded as essential to school and college effec- tiveness (Harris 2002; Briggs 2003). In an era of self-managing schools and colleges in many countries, lay influ- ences on policy are increasingly significant. Governing bodies often have the for- mal responsibility for major decisions and they share in the creation of institutional culture. This does not mean simple acquiescence to the values of the head or principal. Rather, there may be negotiation leading to the possibility of conflict and the adoption of policies inconsistent with the leaders own values. 3 Hoyle (1986) argues that symbols may misrepresent the reality of the school or college. He suggests that schools may go through the appearance of change but the reality continues as before: A symbol can represent something which is real in the sense that it †¦ acts as a surrogate for reality †¦ there will be a mutual recognition by the parties concerned that the substance has not been evoked but they are nevertheless content to sustain the fiction that it has if there has been some symbolization of the substance †¦ in reality the system carries on as formerly. (p.166) Schein (1997, p.249) also warns against placing too much reliance on ritual. When the only salient data we have are the rites and rituals that have survived over a period of time, we must, of course, use them as best we  can †¦ however †¦ it is difficult to decipher just what assumptions lead- ers have held that have led to the creation of particular rites and rituals. Conclusion: people and culture The belief that schools and colleges are unique entities is gaining ground as people increasingly recognise the importance of the specific contexts, internal and exter- nal, which provide the frameworks within which leaders and managers must oper- ate. Despite the pressures of globalisation, understanding and managing the school context is a vital dimension of leadership in the twenty-first century. Values and beliefs are not universal and a one size fits all model does not work for nations any more than it does for schools. The recognition that school and college development needs to be preceded by attitudinal change is also salutary, and is consistent with the view that teachers must feel ownership of change if it is to be implemented effectively. Externally imposed innovation often fails because it is out of tune with the values of the teach- ers who have to implement it. Since organization ultimately resides in the heads of the people involved, effective organizational change always implies cultural change (Morgan 1997, p.150). The emphasis on values and symbols may also help to balance the focus on struc- ture and process in many of the other models. The informal world of norms and rit- ual behaviour may be just as significant as the formal elements of schools and colleges. Even the most concrete and rational  aspects of organization whether structures, hierarchies, rules, or organizational routines embody social construc- tions and meanings that are crucial for understanding how organization functions day to day (Morgan 1997, p.146). Culture also provides a focus for organisational action. Effective leaders often seek to influence values so that they become closer to, if not identical with, their own beliefs. In this way, they hope to achieve widespread support for, or ownership of, new policies. By working through this informal domain, rather than imposing change through positional authority or political processes, heads, principals and other leaders, including middle managers, are more likely to gain support for inno- vation. An understanding of both societal and organisational culture also provides a sound basis for leading and managing people in education. In many countries, schools and colleges are becoming multicultural, and recognition of the rich diver- sity of the cultural backgrounds of students, parents and staff is an essential element in school management. Similarly, all educational organisations have certain dis- tinctive features and understanding and managing this cultural apparatus is vital if leadership is to be in tune with the prevailing norms and values. 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